Constantinople: evolution of an imperial capital.
Constantinople imperial district.
The establishment by the Emperor Constantine I on the site
of the ancient city of Byzantion of a new imperial capital in the year 324, and
its formal consecration in 330, had far-reaching consequences for the pattern
of exchange and movement of goods in the Aegean and east Mediterranean basin,
as well as for the politics of the late Roman world. With the imperial court, a
senate, and all the social, economic and administrative consequences of a major
city, Constantinople soon grew to be the dominant city of the eastern
Mediterranean region, rivalling Alexandria and Antioch in wealth, prestige,
population and cultural influence. But the foundation of the new capital was
not the radical break with tradition it is sometimes suggested: Diocletian had
some years previously established his own residence and court at Nicomedia, not
far to the south; while the establishment of regional locations for the
emperors was a reflection of the needs of the tetrarchy. Constantine’s choice
was probably based on strategic considerations, since his new capital was
located where two major land routes met, both of strategic value: the via
Egnatia, which crossed via Thessalonica to the Adriatic coast, and the military
road from Chalcedon, opposite Constantinople, via Nicomedia to the east.
That the founder of the new imperial city envisaged a
substantial population is evident from the fact of his arranging an annual
grain supply from Egypt amounting to some 80,000 rations. Rapid growth
certainly followed, with greatly expanded water-supply and accompanying
structures (aqueducts, cisterns and so forth), grain-storage facilities, and residential
areas. The pipes, channels and aqueducts bringing the city’s water reached over
80 miles out into the Thracian hinterland, and have still not been fully
traced. The imperial headquarters was established with the construction of a
palace complex, placed in the south-eastern corner of the original city,
accompanied by a substantial hippodrome and a new city wall encompassing an
expanded urban area. The major thoroughfare began at the palace in a colonnaded
route constructed under the Emperor Septimius Severus (who rebuilt parts of the
city after the destruction which occurred in the civil war of 195–196) and led
through the circular Forum of Constantine across the city to the Golden Gate, a
triumphal entry to the city in the southern section of Constantine’s new land
wall. Successive emperors then embellished the city with their own monuments,
including, for example, stoas, colonnaded streets, baths and other public
amenities. In the period from the fourth to the seventh centuries some 40
public bath-houses were built, supplied by a series of vast cisterns, mostly
open air constructions. The cistern of Aetius was among the largest and could
hold some 160,000 m3 of water. By the same token the number of imperial and
private mansions increased, so that by the early fifth century there were at
least five imperial palaces of varying size and function, while the great
palace itself continued to be added to and grew into an immensely complex
labyrinth of buildings.
In later years the city was famed for its churches, although
it seems that Constantine built only three (St Irene, which functioned as the
city’s cathedral church, and the two churches dedicated to local saints, of St
Acacius and St Mocius). But by the 420s there were some 14 churches, and the numbers
increased in the following century. Just as they added to the secular
ornamentation of the city, later emperors added to this number, and the most
famous was built by Justinian in the mid-sixth century, the church of the Holy
Wisdom, or Hagia Sophia (on the site of an earlier church of the same name
destroyed in rioting).
The defensive walls destroyed by Septimius Severus were
rebuilt during the later third century. Constantine began a new circuit further
to the west enclosing an area twice as big again as the original city.
Completed under his successor Constantius II, the absence of any substantial
threat from the sea meant that no sea defences were constructed. The Gothic
threat in the 370s and afterwards, the increasing exposure of the city to raids
from beyond Thrace, and the rapid expansion of the city population and the
needs of the imperial government changed this situation, and during the reign
of Theodosius II the prefect Anthemius enclosed more land within the city and
built the land walls which can be seen today, a massive three-level system with
a moat, stretching for some 6 km from the Sea of Marmara to the Golden Horn.
While the land-walls were begun in 412– 413, the seaward defences were not
begun until the late 430s, but proved their worth in subsequent centuries.
The rapid expansion of Constantinople ground to a halt in
the period from the mid-seventh to late eighth century as the empire lived
through its centuries of crisis. But from the early ninth century on it began
once more to expand both in terms of population and in respect of building
activity. In the 530s the total population may have been as many as 500,000
(some estimates are even higher); by the middle of the eighth century,
following a major plague in the 540s and endemic pestilence throughout the
period up to the 750s, culminating in another major plague in the later 740s,
the population may have been reduced to a low of as few as 30,000–40,000
(although all these figures are contentious). Thereafter it gradually rose again,
until in the later eleventh and twelfth centuries it may have reached the
levels of the early sixth century. The city saw several sieges – successful
resistance to the Avaro-Slav siege of 626, the Arab sieges of 674–678 and
717–718, the Bulgar attacks of the early tenth century and attacks from Russian
sea-raiders in the tenth and eleventh centuries proved the effectiveness of its
defences. In 1204 the city fell by treachery to the forces of the Fourth
Crusade, ostensibly en route to attack Islamic Egypt; and the sack that
followed witnessed the removal or destruction of great numbers of monuments, as
well as the burning of buildings and other forms of destruction which accompany
such events. Recovered by the Byzantines in 1261, it remained in imperial hands
as the empire shrank to the city and its immediate hinterland in the later
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, to fall in May 1453 to the Ottoman army
under Mehmet II after a siege of over two months.
Styles and fashion in building affected Constantinople as
they affected any other built environment, and given the length of the city’s
imperial history it is not surprising that a number of shifts can be seen in
this respect. Most obviously, the secular aspect of imperial building
diminished as emperors and members of the imperial family and court invested
their wealth in churches, palaces and philanthropic establishments, many
supported by generous endowments in land and property. Basil I is supposed to
have rebuilt or restored over 30 churches in the period 867–886. During the
eleventh and twelfth centuries many members of the imperial élite donated funds
for the construction of monasteries or philanthropic establishments in the
city, some of them vast, such as the great Orphanage of St Paul built and
endowed by the emperors and reportedly requiring a whole day to inspect. But as
well as such buildings the city also contained residential quarters, mansions
for the wealthy, a vast range of trades and crafts and the accommodation
required to produce and sell their wares, covered and open-air marketplaces, as
well as imperial armaments workshops, docks and harbours for both military and
civil purposes. From its nadir in the eighth century, when only one commercial
harbour seems to have functioned, in the twelfth century the city could boast
some four harbours and a larger number of quays along the shores of the Golden
Horn for the various merchant communities who had commercial rights in the
city, and in its later years was credited with 365 churches, an exaggeration,
certainly, but indicative of its image and reputation.
The city was the site of imperial ceremonial events
throughout the year, and many were staged as city-wide events. The prefect of
the city had the authority to order individual households along any ceremonial
route to contribute by hanging out precious fabrics and tapestries, for
example, and the streets would be perfumed and decorated to honour the
emperors. Ceremonial processions were generally of a religious character and
marked key festivals of the church; but military parades, triumphs and the
processing of captives and booty were also common. There were several favoured
routes, but the most important was that which led to or from the imperial
palace and the church of the Holy Wisdom, along the Mese or a parallel major
street, to the Golden Gate.
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